Taj Mahal, India

Wonder: Taj Mahal
Country: India
Region: Agra
Visitable: Yes
About:

Taj Mahal or the epitome of love is a magnificent monument that reflects an immense love.

Wonder type: New Seven Wonder Middle Ages Wonder Man-made Wonder National Wonder

The Taj Mahal is standing majestically on the right bank of River Yamuna at a point where it takes a sharp turn and flows eastwards; the Taj Mahal is synonymous of love and romance. The Taj Mahal complex is organized in a rectangle, measuring approximately 310 x 550 meters. It comprises a number of buildings and structures, all functioning together as the funerary monument for Mumtaz Mahal.

The entire architectural complex mainly consists of five major constituents the Darwaza (The main gateway), Bageecha (The gardens), Masjid (The mosque), Naqqar Khana (The rest house), Rauza (The main mausoleum).

The Taj Ganj area leads to the southern gate into the forecourt of the Taj Mahal complex, although the eastern and western gates of the Jilaukhana are more frequently used by tourists. The latter two gates are identical, with central pointed-arch Pishtaqs flanked by octagonal pilasters crowned with Guldastas (ornamental flower pinnacles).

The southern gate is similar to the east and west ones in its verticality. Due to the natural gradient of the site, which slopes toward the riverbank, this gate lies 2.4 m above the ground elevation of the Jilaukhana itself. Two bazaar streets begin at the east and west gates and lead to the Jilaukhana. The bazaars consist of individual rooms (Hujra) along an arcaded Verandah of multi-cusped arches that are supported on slender columns. The Jilaukhana consists of a large courtyard with 128 hujra rooms opening directly onto the courtyard.

To the northeast of the Jilaukhana are the khawasspuras, two residential enclosures. The north side of the Khawasspuras abuts the southern galleries that flank the great gate to the east and the west. The outer southern corners of the enclosures in the khawasspuras have rooms giving access to latrines. The two Saheli Burj (inner subsidiary tombs) enclosures to the east and west of the Jilaukhana are the tomb complexes of two other wives of Shah Jahan. The saheli burj enclosures have gardens arranged in the Chahar Bagh style, with a pool of water in the center surrounded by paved walkways.

The tomb buildings are octagonal, single-story structures, built on a plinth. The walls are formed of multi cusped arcades. The building and its plinth are clad in red sandstone; the structure is topped by a bulbous white marble dome. Inside, the south door of both of the Saheli Burj tombs leads to the cenotaph within. The colours of the exterior cladding are reversed in the interior: the walls are clad in white marble, while the Jalis and ceiling are sandstone.

The great gate (darwaza-i rauza) is a large structure with triadic openings the base of the gate measures nearly 38 meters and its peripheral walls, including the cupolas, are 30 meters in height. The central Pishtaq, also including the cupolas, is 33 meters in height and 19 meters wide. The gate is composed of red sandstone with decorative panels and accents in white marble.

The entry Iwan contains Muqarnas in red sandstone, which contrasts with the white plaster paint outlining each segment. Topping the central Pishtaq is a series of eleven arches in red sandstone, capped by a chajja. This arrangement of architectural elements into rows is found on both the north and south side of the gate, in keeping with the design of the Taj Mahal complex and its internal hierarchies. The corners of the gateway are accentuated by engaged towers, also of red sandstone, that project outward slightly; these towers are decorated with frames of white marble.

The pointed arch on the south elevation of the darwaza-i rauza partially frames the visitors' first glimpse of the main structure, the mausoleum of Mumtaz Mahal. Flanking the darwaza-i rauza on the north, two double arcaded galleries of multifoliate arches known as the southern galleries, one to the east and one to the west, overlook the large garden that precedes the main mausoleum. The columns of the outer and inner arcades differ only in the decoration of their bases: the outer ones have floral decoration alluding to the garden. The platform of the galleries extends into the garden, and its decorative tile paving pattern faces the garden. The galleries terminate on the east and west ends in rooms which are entered from within the gallery.

A shallow water canal (nahr) runs along the centre of the primary walkways; a line of equidistant water fountains runs down the center of the nahr. Geometric patterns in red sandstone depicting regular and elongated stars decorate the edges of the central pathways running on each side of the nahr. At the intersection of the primary walkways is a raised platform with a square water tank (Hauz) at its center. Five fountains are located within the tank, one at each of its four corners and one in its center. The east-west walkways terminate in two-story pavilions (Naubat Khanas) that merge into the outer garden walls. Aqueducts supplied water to the garden from the Yamuna River just north of the mausoleum. The central fountains operated with an underground system of copper vessels connected by copper pipes. At present the garden contains relatively few trees, consisting mainly of fairly maintained grass lawns.

The two Naubat Khanas (drum houses) are constructed on raised platforms and have two floors. On each level, the naubat khanas have a triple archway in the center of the east and west elevations, respectively. On the ground level, the arches are closed with a Jali screen; on the upper level, they remain open. The floor slab of the upper story projects beyond the wall above and below to form a balcony as long as the building; carved red sandstone handrails run along its length, and carved sandstone brackets help support it from below. The Tahkhana, a gallery of rooms arranged in a row and connected by a narrow corridor, is reached by two staircases that descend from openings in the surface of the plinth to the east and west of the mausoleum.

The secondary, square marble plinth, 93 meters long, is centred on the sandstone terrace. The mausoleum proper and the four minarets flanking it are placed on this marble plinth. The base of the plinth is decorated with delicate carvings of vegetal motifs, which also appear on the white marble cladding of the mausoleum.

In the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal complex, the central chamber is double-height and octagonal in plan. At its center rest the cenotaphs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan. The chamber is capped by a shallow dome and decorated with niches on each two-story wall. These niches on the cardinal axes have Jali screens, fitted on the external faces of the walls, which allow light into the room. The niches on the diagonal axes hold rectangular doors. The niches are separated into lower and upper stories by an inscription band that runs around the interior. On the upper level, these frames are replaced by Muqarnas that begin to transform the octagonal plan into a circular ring for the dome. The shallow dome, which is the lower portion of the double dome used for construction, thus appears as decorated with an extended pattern of the Muqarnas that support its base.

The floor of the tomb chamber is tiled with octagonal marble stars in alternating cruciform modules, each outlined with inlaid black stone. Each side of this marble octagonal screen is divided into three panels; only one opens to access the cenotaph. The cenotaph of Mumtaz Mahal is a rectangular block placed on a platform decorated with Quranic verses on the upper block and naturalistic motifs on the lower base.

On the roof of the mausoleum is a high drum, topped with a bulbous dome measuring 25.6 meters high by 17.6 meters wide. Four diagonally placed chhatris flank the drum. The terrace provides a view of the garden below; it is accessed by staircases from the ground floor that lie on either side of the entrance to the mausoleum. The four elevations reflect the symmetry of the mausoleum's plan. The two frames flanking the central Pishtaq contain blind arched niches on the upper and lower levels. Each corner of the building presents a chamfered elevation (to the northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest).

The frame of the mausoleum's central Pishtaqs, as with other similar forms within the complex, is decorated with an inlaid Thuluth inscription of a Quranic verse. At the Pishtaq's highest point is a linear pattern of floral motifs running between two extended engaged columns capped with guldastas. As compared to the larger central Pishtaqs, these two sub-pishtaqs are less elaborately treated, with pilasters on the outer elevations decorated with an inlaid herringbone pattern in black and dark yellow. These pilasters are flanked by square panels, framed with horizontal and vertical chevrons, at their base.

The mosque and Mihmankhana are located to the west and east of the mausoleum building. Symmetrical and identical in design, it is conjectured from records that the mosque was built first, followed by the Mihmankhana. The mosque has a Mihrab in its Qibla wall, highlighted by a marble frame with an inscription of the Sun Sura. The floor of the mosque also differs from that of the Mihmankhana; it is patterned in Muslim prayer mats. The ceilings are finished in the Sgraffito technique, consisting of a coat of red plaster laid over a white one. Floral designs are later carved through the red layer, to appear in white.

The southwest tower contains a Stepwell (baoli) whereas that to the south of the Mihmankhana holds chambers leading to latrines. The southwest tower with the baoli also has a well shaft running down the centre of the structure and extending through its five floors: three above, two below. The two tower pavilions north of the mosque and Mihmankhana contain chambers leading to latrines on the lower levels, and stairs leading toward the riverbed. The four riverfront towers are each octagonal in plan. Each tower has a central room with an ambulatory path circling around the exterior. The exterior walls have multi-cusped blind arches; each terrace has an Oriel window (Jharoka) with views of the river. The towers are clad in red sandstone and have floral motifs carved in relief with marble inlays on panels.

History

Taj Mahal was built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan (1628-1658), grandson of Akbar the great, in the memory of his queen Arjumand Bano Begum, entitled Mumtaz Mahal a Muslim Persian princess. The queen’s real name was Arjumand Banu. In the tradition of the Mughals, important ladies of the royal family were given another name at their marriage or at some other significant event in their lives, and that new name was commonly used by the public.

She died while accompanying her husband in Burhanpur in a campaign to crush a rebellion after giving birth to their 14th child. When Mumtaz Mahal was still alive, she extracted four promises from the emperor: first, that he build the Taj; second, that he should marry again; third, that he be kind to their children; and fourth, that he visit the tomb on her death anniversary. But this has not been proven to be true, till date.

According to legend, after his wife’s death, Shah Jahan reportedly locked himself in his rooms and refused food for eight days, when the emperor emerged from his seclusion, his black beard visible in many Mughal miniature paintings had turned completely white. For the monument to his wife, Shah Jahan chose a site occupied by sprawling gardens on a bend in the left bank of the Yamuna River. Six months later, her body was transferred to Agra to be finally enshrined in the crypt of the main tomb of the Taj Mahal. The Taj Mahal is the mausoleum of both Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan.

The Taj Mahal

The construction of Taj Mahal started in the year 1631 and it took approximately 22 years to build it. It made use of the services of 22,000 labourers and 1,000 elephants for the transportation of the construction materials. The materials used in the Taj Mahal complex are bricks, sandstone and white marble. Brick sizes varied between 18-19 x 11-12.5 x 2.3 cm, a standard size since Akbar's rule. These bricks were baked in kilns on the outskirts of Agra. The sandstone used in the complex has a colour varying from soft red to red with a yellow tint. White marble came from the quarries of Makrana in Rajasthan, approx. 400 kms southeast of Agra. The marble used in the complex was a white one with black and grey streaks.

The greatest technical problem in the construction of the Taj Mahal was its heavy superstructures near the riverfront. This was accomplished using wells cased in wood and filled with rubble and iron, spaced at 3.75 meters on center. Precious and semi-precious stones are used in the decoration of the mausoleum than elsewhere in the complex. These stones include lapis lazuli, sapphire, cornelian, jasper, chrysolite and heliotrope. A strict discipline in colours and decoration is visible in the detailed ornamentation of the Taj Mahal. Floral relief carvings are found on the marble and sandstone walls; these carvings are stylistically related to the pietra dura work, yet are worked according to the material of the building they adorn.

The Taj Mahal architecture is a kind of fusion of Persian, Central Asian and Islamic architecture. Specific design credit is uncertain, and is given by different sources to Istad Usa, Ustad Ahmad Lahori, Isa Muhammad Effendi or Geronimo Veroneo. But construction documents show that its master architect was Istad Usa, the renowned Islamic architect of his time. The documents contain names of those employed and the inventory of construction materials and their origin. And how the entire complex is designed in such a way that the apparent organic unity of the whole does not obscure the individuality of any part, nor does it detract from the prominence of the Taj Mahal proper. It was completed in 1648 at a cost of 32 Million Rupees (more than 750 000 dollars).

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Stonehenge, England

Wonder: Stonehenge
Country: England
Region: Wiltshire
Visitable: Yes
About:

Stonehenge a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument in Wiltshire consider five theories: a place for the dead, a place of healing, an ancient observatory, a place of Moon worship and UFO landing site.

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

The construction has been estimated more than thirty million hours of labors. As mysterious as old, it has long puzzled archaeologists; no one knows why it was constructed, although it’s believed to have been started about 3100 B.C and spanning several centuries.

Stonehenge is a medieval term meaning “hanging stones”. Multi-ton stones were brought to Salisbury Plain from great distances. Experts speculate that stone could have been put on rafts, transported by water and dragged on rollers. Maybe 500 men, aided by ropes pull one of these stones. Researchers suggested that Stonehenge was used as a place of worship, even as a location for human sacrifice, other consider that the stone formations were used as an observatory to predict the sun and moon’s position to the earth and determinate the seasons.

Today only half of the original monument survives, because over the centuries, people taken pieces of the stone for building materials and souvenirs, however Stonehenge is a popular tourist destination.

Stonehenge a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument in Wiltshire consider five theories about this amazing world medieval heritage. Although new research suggests that Stonehenge was originally used as a cemetery.

Mike Parker Pearson of the University of Sheffield, UK argues that Stonehenge was primarily a place for the dead, and must be treated as part of a greater complex of monuments in the surrounding area. Many human remains excavated from burial mounds nearby have shown signs of injury or illness, and chemical analysis of teeth revealed that they came from as far afield as Ireland, Wales and northern England, so that monument was a place of healing, probably people have the impression that they could cure them of their ailments. Another theory supposes that it was an ancient observatory, used to mark midsummer, but other suggested that Stonehenge was used to predict solar and lunar eclipses. Lionel Syms of the University of East London argues that the building marked a fundamental shift in society from hunting to agriculture, which corresponded with a shift from lunar to solar worship. In this case Stonehenge could have been used as a place of Moon worship. Ant the last theory suggested a UFO landing site, because of its claimed sightings in the area.

History

The complex was built in several construction phases spanning at least 3000 years, although there is evidence for activity both before and afterwards on the side, perhaps extending 6500 years more.

Stonehenge

Before the monument, approximately 8000 BC forward some archaeologists found four large Mesolithic postholes beneath the modern tourist car-park. These held pine posts around 0.75 m were erected and left to rot in situ. At this time, Salisbury Plain was still wooed but four thousand years later, a cursus monument was built 600 m north of the site as the first farmers began to clear the forest and exploit the area.

A circular bank and ditch enclosure measuring around 110 m in diameter with a large entrance to the north east and a smaller one to the south, was the first monument. Bones of deer and oxen in the bottom of the ditch was placed there by builders. In the second phase there is no longer visible, but the number of postholes increase with some form of timber structure, further standing of it were placed at the northeast entrance. At least 25 of the Aubrey Holes contained cremation burials dating to the two centuries after the monument’s inception, and 30 further cremations were placed in the enclosure’s ditch and other points within the monument. Stonehenge is therefore interpreted as functioning as an enclosed cremation cemetery at this time.

Around 2600 BC, the archaeological excavations have indicated that timber was abandoned in favor of stone and two concentric holes were dug in the centre of the site. The bluestones consisting in dolerite, a holocrystine igneous rock were brought from glacial deposits carried down from the northern side of the Preselis to southern England by the Irish Sea Glacier. The Altar Stone may have stood as a single large monolith.

The widening of the north eastern entrance matched the direction of the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset of the period. The Heelstone tertiary sandstone cannot be securely dated and may have been erected outside the north eastern and may also have been installed at any time in phase 3. Other features loosely are the four Station Stones, two of which stood atop mounds. The mounds are known as “barrows” although they do not contain burials.

At the end of the 3rd millennium BC, 30 enormous Oligocene-Miocene sarsen stones brought from a quarry to the north of Stonehenge, on the Marlborough Downs. A total of 74 stones would have been needed to complete the circle, it would seem that the ring was left incomplete but some of the sarsens were removed from the site. In one of the sarsens, known as stone 53, images of a “dagger” and 14 “axe-heads” have been recorded carved on it. So it’s difficult to date the images but recent lasers scanning work on the carvings, indicates that apparently are similar to later Bronze Age weapons.

Due to radiocarbon, a Stonehenge archer body was discovered in the outer ditch of the monument in 1978. The last known usage of Stonehenge was during the Iron Age. Roman coins and medieval artifacts were found in or around the monument but it is unknown if the monument was in continuous use throughout prehistory or beyond. The site was known by scholars during the middle Ages and since then it was been studied.

Stonehenge was produced by a culture with no written language, many aspect of it remain subject to debate, but a numerous theories some of them very colorful explain the origin of this beautiful monument. In other words, we don't know, but half the fun of Stonehenge is the speculation.

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Roman Colosseum, Italy

Wonder: Roman Colosseum
Country: Italy
Region: Rome
Visitable: Yes
About:

An elliptical amphitheatre, the Coliseum is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.

Wonder type: New Seven Wonder Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

Rome was a center of learning, trade and commerce for ages and has contributed significantly in the development of these areas. The origination of the word “Coliseum”, probably come from colossal statue of Nero which once stood near the stadium.

The discussion of Rome would be unfinished without the description of so the much talked Roman Colosseum. But non doubt the architecture and the concept is definitely a matter of appreciation and pride.

Originally was the Flavian Amphitheatre, an elliptical amphitheatre located in the heart of the city of Rome. It is one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering. The building was constructed by emperors of the Flavian dynasty, hence its original name. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum; this name could have been strictly poetic.

The Colosseum or Coliseum occupies a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started between 70 and 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian, opened by Emperor Titus in 80 AD with 100 days of games which roughly have taken the lives of some nine thousand animals and remodeled by Domitian who constructed the hypogeum, a series of underground tunnels used to house animals and slaves. Also he added a gallery to the top Colosseum to increase its seating capacity.

The Coliseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles, with a capacity of 50 000 spectators. It was used for the next 500 years with the last recorded games being held there. As well as the traditional gladiatorial games, many other public spectacles were held there, such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. It ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era and it was later re-opened for such varied purposes as housing, workshops; quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry and a Christian shrine.

Today the Colosseum is in a ruined condition, due to damage caused by an earthquakes and stone-robbers. For a long time it has been seen as an icon symbol of Imperial Rome. It’s one of modern Rome’s most popular tourist attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church, as each Good Friday the Pope leads torchlight “Way of the Cross” procession to the amphitheatre. The Coliseum is depicted on the Italian version of the five-cent euro coin.

History

The construction began under the rule of Vespasian Emperor around 70-72. The site was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine hills, through which a canalized stream ran. Later the area was densely inhabited by the 2nd century. The Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 devastated it, in addition Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. To supply water to the area, the existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.

The superb Roman Colosseum

Although the Colossus was preserved much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Within the former grounds, gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby the Domus Area. The Coliseum can be thus interpreted as a great triumphal monument, in accord to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, “the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general’s share of the booty”. This is thought to refer to the vast quantity of treasure seized by the Romans following their victory in the Great Jewish Revolt.

The Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire around 217, possibly caused by the lightning which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre’s interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. In 443 a possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century with gladiatorial fights last mentioned around 435. Animal hunts continued until at least 523.

During the medieval period, the Coliseum underwent several radical changes. The arena was converted into a cemetery. Around 1200 the Frangipani family used it as a castle, but the great earthquake of 1349 caused the outer south side to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome.

In 1749, the Pope Benedict XIV consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross, declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there.

Due to the ruined state, the Coliseum cannot use to host large events so much of these larger concerts have been held just outside, using the building as a backdrop. The Colosseum was covered with an enormous awning known as the velarium. This protected the spectators from the sun. It was attached to large poles on top of the Colosseum and anchored to the ground by large ropes. A team of some 1,000 men was used to install the awning.

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Porcelain Tower of Nanjing, China

Wonder: Porcelain Tower of Nanjing
Country: China
Region: Nanjing
Visitable: No
About:

A sublimely elegant example of Buddhist Architecture that in its golden times was covered with superior quality white and shining porcelain bricks interlaid with colored stones.

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

The Porcelain Tower of Nanjing does not exist now but it was located on the south bank of the Yangtze. It means the “Temple of Gratitude”, also known as Bao’ensi, it was constructed as a Buddhist pagoda, that’s the reason for it’s also known as Porcelain Pagoda, but around 19th century it was mostly destroyed during the Taiping rebellion. However now is under reconstruction once again.

History

This amazing tower that radiated sunrays and functioned as a center of pilgrimage stands tall among world wonders. It was constructed by the Chinese Emperor Yung Le around 15th century. With 260 feet high octagonal in shape with 97 feet in diameter, the tower was the largest building in China at the time of its construction. It was existed up to the middle of the 19th century.

Porcelain Tower of Nanjing

This Buddhist Pagoda had two damages the first was a bolt of lightning that struck in 180, but the manmade disaster in the shape of Taiping Revolution was detrimental and marked its end. During the period 1840-1850 the rebels took control of the area when smashed the stairs to stop others from using it as a platform, then around 1856 the same destroyed the remaining parts of this marvel in vengeance. For years the remnants of the structure were lying uncared and recently Chinese Government has started to rebuild its rich ancestry.

The Porcelain Tower in its golden times was covered with superior quality white and shining porcelain bricks interlaid with colored stones. The entire area reflected sunrays in light during days and numerous lights were hung to illuminate the pictures of flowers, animals, landscapes and Buddhist images during nights. Possibly the spiral staircase had 140 steps that matched with the number of lamps that illuminated the outer wall.

When the tower was built, it was one of the largest buildings in China rising up to a height of 260 ft; in addition its octagonal shape has a base of about 97ft in diameter. Originally the plan was added more storeys, in a sense only a few Chinese pagodas surpass its height, such as Liaodi Pagoda of 11th century in Hebei or the non-existent 330 ft tall of 7th century in Chang’an.

Designed by the Chinese Emperor Yongle and first discovered by the Western world when European travelers visited it. Since it was listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the World, the tower has seen as a national treasure to both locals and other cultures around the world.

A sublimely elegant example of Buddhist Architecture by those who have seen it in first person and during the early 19th century Le Compte a French mathematician has rightly written “The best contrived and the structure of all the east”, this remark contain all.

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Kom el Shoqafa Catacombs, Egypt

Wonder: Kom el Shoqafa Catacombs
Country: Egypt
Region: Alexandria
Visitable: Yes
About:

The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa is a multi level labyrinth featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues and other Romano Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches and sarcophagi

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, is the Arab translation of the ancient Greek name, Lofus Kiramaikos which means “mound of shards” or “potsherds”. Located to the southwest of the Pompey’s pillar is a multi level labyrinth featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues and other Romano Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches and sarcophagi as well as a banquet room of Roman style, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased.

Many of the features of the necropolis merge both Roman, Greek and Egyptian cultural points, due to the time period. So some statues are Egyptian in style, Roman clothes and hair style whilst other features share a similar style. During the age of the Antonine emperors a circular staircase used to transport deceased bodies down the middle of it, leads down into the tombs that were tunneled into the bedrock. So its easy access was then used as a burial chamber. According to tradition, this is a mass burial chamber for the humans and animals massacred by order of the Emperor Caracalla, so this is one of the more gruesome features of the catacombs, called Hall of Caracalla.

History

Located in Rhakolis a fishing village in the old part of Alexandria City in Egypt; the catacombs survived due to its advantageous location to the historical turmoil taken place during the past centuries has either eliminated much of the rich monuments. The underground tunnels dates back to the 1st century AD and was used until the 4th century AD. On 28th September 1900, according to popular belief, a donkey cart fell into a pit which led to the discovery of the catacombs. But the reality is that Said Ali Jibarah, an Alexandrian man, was quarrying for stone when he broke open the vault of a subterranean tomb.

Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa

Probably the catacombs were used for a single wealthy family as a private tomb and later converted to a public cemetery. They are composed of a three levels; the first level consists of a vestibule with a double exedra, a rotunda and a big dinning-table with chairs at three sides (triclinium), including a platform for funeral rituals; in an original state, the second level was the main tomb with various surrounding corridors, magnificent statues, decorations on all proper places, images, ornate carvings and practically everything needed for a funeral hall; the third level is submerged in ground water, also saturated with sand. The large number of grooves cut in the rock is known as “loculi”. The complex contained over one hundred loculi numerous rock-cut sarcophagus tombs, in its final stage.

Representing an integration of the cultures and traditions of the Egyptians, the cemetery is unique both for their plan and decoration. People seemed to have a talent for combining rather than destroying, so in this place we find decorations related to ancient an Egyptian theme which makes them quite unlike anything in the world.

The Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa may not be as famous or visible as the Pyramids but they are equally astonishing and perhaps more intriguing than the Pyramids.

In olden days Christians of the Roman Empire this subterranean funeral halls were resorted to bury their dead and evade desecration by the oppressive regimes. Kom el Shoqafa structures were Pagan sects. The members of the Pharoah-Cult placed the intact dead bodies in this place because they believed in rebirths.

Considered by archaeologist and all who love their heritage and history, a real treasure by its scripts written, the motif, the engravings, statues and even the coffins. In a sense catacombs were an escape to the oppressed and the hunted to preserve their rituals and heritage.

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Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy

Wonder: Leaning Tower of Pisa
Country: Italy
Region: Pisa
Visitable: Yes
About:

The leaning tower of Pisa an artwork that performed in three stages is the campanile or freestanding bell tower of the Pisa’s Cathedral.

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

The Leaning Tower of Pisa is the third structure by time in the Cathedral Square and is situated behind the Cathedral.

The tower presently leans to the southwest at an angle of 3.97 degrees. At the beginning it intended to stand vertically but was impossible due to a poorly laid foundation and loose substrate that has allowed the foundation to shift direction. The height of the tower is 55.86 m from the ground on the lowest side and 56.70 m on the highest side. Its weight is estimated at 14,500 tones.

History

Two different masses of cannon balls dropped of the tower to demonstrate that their descending speed was independent of their mass. So it’s considered an apocryphal tale because the only source for it comes from Galileo’s secretary.

A work of art that performed in three stages during 177 years, the construction of the first floor of the white marble campanile began on 1173, and is surrounded by pillars, classical capitals, leaning against blind arches. In 1178 the tower began to sink after construction of the third floor, the cause was a mere three-meter foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil. Later the construction was subsequently halted for almost a century, the Pisans still engaged in battles with Genoa, Lucca and Florence, which allowed to the underlying soil to settle. In 1198 temporarily clocks was installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.

Leaning Tower of Pisa and Cathedral

In an effort to compensate the tilt, the engineers built higher floors with one side taller than the other, but the tower start to lean in other direction and actually it’s curved. In 1284 the construction was halted again and in 1319 the seventh floor was completed and the bell-chamber was not added until 1372. Tommaso di Andrea Pisano built the bell-chamber with the Romanesque style of the tower.

There are seven bells, one for each note of the musical scale, and the largest one was installed in 1655.
1st bell: L’assuna, weight 3620 kg.
2nd bell: Crocifisso, weight 2462 kg.
3rd bell: San Ranieri, weight 1448 kg.
4th bell: La Terza, weight 300 kg.
5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia comes from Easter, because it used to ring on Easter day, weight 1014 kg.
6th bell: It Vespruccio, weight 1000 kg.
7th bell: Dal Pozzo, weight 652 kg. The bell announced capital executions of criminals and traitors, but a new bell was transferred on the bell tower to replace the broken Pasquareccia bell at the end of the 18th century.

Benito Mussolini ordered that the tower be returned to a vertical position in 1934, so the concrete was poured into its foundation and the catastrophic result was that the tower actually sank further into the soil.

In 1964, the government of Italy prevents the tower from toppling but was necessary considered to retain the current tilt due to the vital role in the tourism industry of Pisa. On the Azores islands a multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians and historians was assigned to discuss stabilization methods. The reason was the stonework expanding and contracting each day due to the heat of sunlight. Many methods were proposed but only after over two decades of work on the subject, the tower was closed to the public. The solution was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by removing 38 m3 of soil from underneath the raised end. It was straightened by 45 cm to the position that occupied in 1838, and after a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the tower was reopened to the public in 2001, and it was declared stable for at least another 300 years.

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Hagia Sophia, Turkey

Wonder: Hagia Sophia
Country: Turkey
Region: Istanbul
Visitable: Yes
About:

The basilica represents a major revolution in church construction and is the most beautiful building that survived to the fire, to the earthquake and the vandalism of rioters.

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

Aya Sofya is the most beautiful building that survived to the fire, to the earthquake and the vandalism of rioters but each time it literally rose from its ashes was to be the most majestic human construction ever before seen.

History

The church of Holy wisdom was constructed in 360 AD by the Constantine’s son. It remained until 404 AD as the “Great Church” when the fury of the mob did not let trace of the original structure. Rebuilt in larger dimensions by Thodosius II in 405 AD during the Nika revolt it was burnt down along with half of the city in 532 AD. The next reconstruction was made by Justinian who brought eight Corinthian columns from Baalbek to Constantinople.

Mosaic into Hagia Sophia

Time back it was the largest cathedral in the world but in 989 during the devastated earthquake its beautiful dome crumbled down along with many other parts. So “Trdat” the famous architect, was invited for the reconstruction by the Byzantine government.

For years Hagia Sophia experimented diverse changes, it was converted in a mosque; Mehmud I established a “Kulliye” in the complex, which was a Koranic school, social kitchen and a library; Sultan Abdulla did extensive modification works; the father of Turky, Mustaffa Kemal Pasha converted the monument in a museum so all are prominent names associated with its history “temple church mosque museum”.

Sinan a Turkish architect was engaged for the restoration and strengthening of the structure. He completed the work with two minarets by the sides of the main structure which dampened the seismic energy of the earthquakes. Thereby this theory has been approved by the modern seismologist and Sinan is considered as the first engineer in the world who built building that can combat a quake with architectural changes.

The basilica represent a major revolution in church construction, it featured a huge dome which needed of new ideas in order to support its weight, a feat which had not been attempted before. In the days when there was no steel used in construction, large roofs and domes had to be supported by massive pillars and walls. The dome was supported by four piers each measuring about 118 square yards at the base. The church itself measures 260 x 270 feet; the dome rises 210 feet above the floor and it has a diameter of 110 feet. The nave is 135 feet wide, more than twice the width of the aisles which measure 62 feet.

The Deesis mosaic was a later addition of the 12-13th centuries to the upper South Gallery of the Church. During Byzantine times this area of the church was reserved for members of the Imperial family and the court who viewed the liturgy from this easternmost bay of the church. Originally the vaults of the gallery were covered with mosaics of Pentecost and Seraphim, but this all came down in an earthquake in 1894. Many consider this mosaic among the greatest treasures of world art and culture. Among Christians it is often called the finest representation of Christ. It is a great tragedy that most of the mosaic has been lost but the survival of the beautiful faces of Christ, His Mother and St. John the Baptist is nothing short of miraculous.

The amazing survival of Hagia Sophia is due to the love and care of centuries of believers who have made it a home of prayer, history and art.

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Great Wall of China, China

Wonder: Great Wall of China
Country: China
Region: Beijing
Visitable: Yes
About:

One of the most famous structures of the world and unique human structure that can be seen from the space.

Wonder type: New Seven Wonder Middle Ages Wonder Man-made Wonder National Wonder

The Great Wall of China is a series of stone and earthen fortifications in China, built, rebuilt, and maintained between the 5th century BC and the 16th century to protect the northern borders of the Chinese Empire during the rule of successive dynasties.

The steps that form the Great Wall of China are very steep and tall in some areas. Tourists often become exhausted climbing the wall and walk no more than a kilometre or two (around a mile). In some areas the blocks were cemented with a mixture of glutinous rice and egg white. In the extreme western desert locations, where good materials are scarce, the wall was constructed from dirt rammed between rough wood tied together with woven mats.

The Wall is included in lists of the "Seven Medieval Wonders of the World" but was of course not one of the classical Seven Wonders of the World recognized by the ancient Greeks.It is the world's longest human made structure, stretching over approximately 6,400 km from Shanhaiguan in the east to Lop Nur in the west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia, but stretches to over 6,700 km in total. It is also the largest human made structure ever built in terms of surface area and mass.

Three sections are in Beijing municipality, which was renovated and which is regularly visited by modern tourists. One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely steep slopes. It runs 11 kilometres long, ranges from 5 to 8 meters in height, and 6 meters across the bottom, narrowing up to 5 meters across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's 67 watchtowers, 980 meters above sea level.

South East of Jinshanling, is the Mutianyu Great Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers. It is connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east. Another notable section lies near the eastern extremity of the wall, where the first pass of the Great Wall was built on the Shanhaiguan, the first mountain the Great Wall climbs. Jia Shan is also here, as is the Jiumenkou, which is the only portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.

History

The construction of the Great Wall China began in the 7th century B.C., under the Dynasty Zhou. This wall was constructed along many hundreds of years. The first version of the wall was constructed to support invaders far from the villages that cultivate the land for the Chinese border. These walls were constructed in weak points in the natural landscape or where the threat was perceived like the major one.

Some of these walls eventually became of greater strategic importance when the localised defences were gradually joined to form the Great Wall of China. At those times that the Chinese territory expanded northward, earlier walls became secondary defences when a more northerly wall was built. The Great Wall of China was built by soldiers, civilians, farmers and prisoners, primarily during three dynasties: the Qin, the Han and the Ming, although the Sui Dynasty and the Ten Kingdoms period also played a part. The building styles of each dynasty added their own flavour and advanced the techniques learned from the previous.

The Great Wall of China

The first dynasty of China was the short lived Qin Dynasty. The first emperor, Qin ShiHuang, was a tyrannical emperor who unified China by force and set about constructing one Great Wall by joining. He even sent scholars to work on the Great Wall, anyone who was deemed unproductive. These workers faced arduous labor, and the constant danger of being attacked by bandits.

Most of early Great Wall was composed of weak stone, but when the natural stone in an area was not sufficient did that the engineers were turning to another method, there had to be used a rectangular frame that was filled with loose soil. This soil was trampled for several hours by a team of workers until this was solid. This process of landfill and to trample would be repeated again and again until the wall was reaching the wished height.

The second dynasty to add to the Great Wall was the Han Dynasty. The most notable contribution of the Han Dynasty is that they extended the Great Wall westwards through the Gobi Desert. Despite a lack of building materials, ingenious Chinese engineers found a solution. This method involved first laying down a layer of willow reeds, possibly woven. Then a layer of gravel and a little water was applied and trampled solid. After the trampling, a new layer of reeds and gravel was added. This process would be repeated until the desired height was reached. Amazingly, some portions of this Great Wall are still standing, partly due to the dry conditions of the Gobi.

The last dynasty to build a northern wall was the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). This dynasty built the biggest, longest, strongest and most ornate Great Wall ever. These are the walls that we are familiar with today. Their methods of Great Wall building fused all that was learned by the two previous dynasties. First, a center of trampled earth was created. Then, around the firm center was applied a shell of stone and bricks. The bricks that were created by the Ming are so strong that they compare well with the ones we use today. The strong Ming wall was built across some of the most dangerous terrains in China, including steep mountains, sometimes on 75 degree inclines. It has been said that every foot of the construction of this Great Wall cost one human life.

The Ming Dynasty Great Wall starts on the eastern end at ShanHai Pass, near QinHuangDao, in Hebei Province, next to Bohai Sea. It once spanned 9 provinces and 100 counties, but the final 500 kilometers of the Great Wall to the west have all but turned to rubble. Along the Ming Great Wall of China there are many watchtowers, spaced from less than a kilometer to several kilometers or more apart. These were partly used to transmit military messages. Fire and smoke were the most efficient means for communication; fire was used at night and smoke during the day. Straw and dung was used for this. In 1468, a series of regulations set specific meanings to these signals: a single shot and a single fire or smoke signal implied about 100 enemies, two signals warned of 500, three warned of over a 1000 and so on. In this way, a message could be transmitted over more than 500 km of the Great Wall within a few hours.

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Ely Cathedral, England

Wonder: Ely Cathedral
Country: England
Region: Ely
Visitable: Yes
About:

Ely Cathedral known as “the ship of the Fens” is one of the most amazing engineering feats of middle Ages with the unique form of its Octagon Tower.

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder

Ely Cathedral is known as “the ship of the Fens” because of its prominent shape that towers above the surrounding flat and watery landscape. It is located in the Cambridgeshire County of England and boasts one of the most amazing engineering feats of the Middle Ages with the unique form of its Octagon Tower.

Simeon, a kinsman of William the Conqueror was named Abbot of Ely after the Norman invasion; he began rebuilding it in 1083, creating one of the best examples of Romanesque architecture in England. Alan of Walsingham had to design a central tower that seems to float unsupported above the crossing of Ely Cathedral like a cloud when the tower collapsed in the early 14th century. In the Victorian period the beams of Alan were carefully restored by Sir Gilbert Scott who added restrained restoration work to the interior.

One of the premier Saxon churches in England along Glastonbury and Canterbury. Actually the lantern tower is formed by a series of massive oak beams which rise to a height of 63 ft. It is supported by diagonal oak beams resting upon stone pillars which support a total weight of 400 tons of wood and lead.

History

The story about Ely Cathedral begins with the St. Etheldreda’s life in Saxon Times. Daughter of Anna, king of East Anglia, she was born probably in Exning, near Newmarket in Suffolk. Around 652 she was married at an early age with Tondberht, ealdorman of the South Gyrwas but in 655 he died and she remained virgin. After that she retired to her dowry, the Isle of Ely. Five years later for political reasons she was married with Egfrith, the young king of Northumbria who was several years younger than her. At the beginning he accepted that she going to remain a virgin, but 12 years later he wished their marital relationship was normal. Etheldreda refused to her young husband with the advice and aid of Wilfred, bishop of Northumbria. In spite of the bribes in vain offered by Egfrith, she left him and became in a nun at Coldingham under her aunt Ebbe and also she founded a double monastery at Ely in 673.

The Octagon inside Ely Cathedral

An old church at Ely destroyed by Penda, pagan king of the Mercians was restored by Etheldreda and on the site she built a monastery which became the richest abbey in England. The monastery flourished for 200 years until it was destroyed by the Danes and it was refunded as a Benedictine community in 970.

The result of the plague which also killed several of her nuns, killed to Etheldreda around 680 with a tumour on the neck. 17 years after her death her body was found to be incorrupt and the linen cloths in which her body was wrapped were as fresh as the day she had been buried. So the body was placed in a stone sarcophagus of Roman origin found at Grantchester and reburied. For centuries, the shrine was the focus for vast numbers of medieval pilgrims, but it was destroyed in 1541 in spite of that, a slate in the Cathedral marks the spot where it stood.

A third major restoration project, the most extensive to date, was begun in 1986 and was completed in the year 2000. The Etheldreda Banner was made by Miss Yams of Bayswater in 1910 and is still used today during great processions at Ely Cathedral. It depicts Saint Etheldreda with a crosier as first Abbess of Ely, and around her, are the coats of arms of the See (top left), the University of Cambridge (bottom left), the Dean and Chapter of Ely (top right), and the Borough (now City) of Cambridge (bottom right); the arms at the top are those of Frederick Henry Chase, Bishop of Ely 1905-1924.

The cathedral looks out over an amazing green space. Its great window is visible on the north as well. The south side contains one of the largest surviving collections of medieval monastic buildings in England. Inside of it, the fine Norman nave built from east to west begins in 1100 and completed around 1139. Some architectural development over those four decades is visible: the shape in the arches is square until the sixth bay and rounded in subsequent bays. The floor and ceiling are Victorian, around 1869 the pavement replaced rough stones, the wooden ceiling was painted by Henry Styleman le Strange and his friend Thomas Gambier Parry, two gifted amateurs. Off the south aisle of the nave is the Prior’s Door, which has a magnificent example of 12th century Romanesque carvings. Near to the Prior’s Door is Ovin’s stone, the oldest artefact in the cathedral. The inscription reads “To Ovin – give your light, O Lord and rest. Amen.”

The lantern’s construction took 14 years to finish it. By 1340 the roof was covered in lead and the ceiling was carved and painted. The wooden stalls in the octagon area were designed by George Pace in 1978. Above the pulpit is a modern sculpture of Christ in Majesty by Peter Eugene Ball.

The choir consists of two different periods of construction due to its styles. The first three bays are in decorated style of Gothic architecture. The six remaining bays are in the simpler Early English Gothic style. The choir stalls include many fascinating medieval carvings on the misericords. The canopies depict Old Testament biblical scenes on the south and New Testament biblical scenes on the north.

The Bishop Alcock’s chantry chapel is considered one of the finest examples of Gothic architecture in England, with ornate stonework carved from chalky Cambridgeshire stone and a fan-vaulted ceiling. The statues which once filled the niches were destroyed at the Reformation.

The Lady Chapel was built from 1321 to 1349, it once looked much different than it does today. The walls were bursting with colourful paintings, the windows were filled with the finest medieval stained glass, and the niches were home to exquisite statues. But all was destroyed, but even the badly damaged state it provides an idea of what it must have looked like. The chapel became a parish church after the Reformation, but was returned to the cathedral in 1938. The unusual sculpture of the Virgin Mary that stands above the altar is by David Wynne (2000). Housed in the south triforium near the main entrance at the west end is a Stained Glass Museum, which displays examples of stained glass from 1240 to the present day.

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Cluny Abbey, France

Wonder: Cluny Abbey
Country: France
Region: Cluny
Visitable: Yes
About:

The monastery was once the greatest power in Europe and the centre of a major monastic movement during the Middle ages.

Wonder type: Middle Ages Wonder National Wonder

The Cluny Abbey in France was the centre of a major monastic movement during the middle ages. The largest Christian building was its church until St. Peter’s Basilica was rebuilt in Rome. The site also includes pleasant gardens and a museum with Romanesque artefacts.

Now the site offers a prestigious heritage, after nine centuries of monastic life including a Museum of Art and Archaeology housing Romanesque sculpture, a Medieval City rich in Romanesque and Gothic houses, two churches and a superb Hôtel-Dieu(hospital) offering a remarkable fresco by Chaimowicz.

Controlling over 10,000 monks from Poland to Scotland, the monastery was once the greatest power in Europe, which started by the Benedictine monks in 940AD. So large buildings had to be erected to house everyone and 40 farms produced the food.

Today the abbey is a ghost of the past and only one tenth of the gigantic cathedral remains. One of the architectural tragedies of history was the damage done during the French Revolution with the burning of the Church furnishings and the wracking of the tombs. It was in great part demolished under the First Empire but a high octagonal tower, the chapel of Bourbon and the ruins of the apse still remain. Around 1750 the abbey buildings were rebuilt and now contain a technical school. Part of the site of the church is given up to the stabling of a government stud. The abbot’s palace serves as hotel-de-ville, library and museum.

History

The Cluny Abbey was founded in 910 and was built on a forested hunting preserve donated by William I the Pious, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne. He relieved the monks of Cluny of all obligations to him except for their prayers for his soul but it was much more common for patrons to retain some proprietary interest in the abbey and they usually expected to install their relatives as abbots.

Entrance arches at the ruins at
Cluny Abbey

It was founded by Benedictine monks who offered perpetual prayer, emphasising liturgy and spiritual pursuits over labour and other monastic activities. When monasteries were founded in the Cluniac tradition, these were designated “priores” not abbeys, and were accordingly overseen by a prior who reported to the abbot of Cluny, before the most monasteries were autonomous and associated with others only informally. This system worked well and around 1016 the Pope decreed that the privileges of Cluny also extended to subordinate houses. In 1088 the construction of third abbey church began and its one that still stands in part today. For centuries it was the largest church in Christendom.

In the 12th century at the top of its influence, Cluny became in the head of a monastic empire with 10000 monks. Four of popes were abbots of Cluny, and the Pope Urban II declared to Cluny as “the light of the world”. The success of it abbey was due to its abbots who are educated drawn from the highest aristocratic circles, two of whom were canonized: Odo of Cluny, the second abbot (died 942) and Hugh of Cluny (died 1109). Odilo, the fifth abbot (died 1049) was a third great leader. However the order began to lose momentum under poor government, but subsequently it was revitalized under Abbot Peter the Venerable; its monks became bishops, legates and cardinals throughout France and the Holy Roman Empire. But soon, new austere orders such as the Cistercians were generating the next wave of ecclesiastical reform. At the same time, the rise of English and French nationalism created a climate unfavourable to the existence of monasteries autocratically ruled by a head residing in Burgundy.

The Papal Schism (1378-1409) further divided loyalties: France recognized the pope at Avignon and England that at Rome, interfering with the relations between Cluny and its dependent houses in England. Under the strain, some English houses, such as Lenton Priory, Nottingham, became officially English, weakening the Cluniac structure. By the time of the French Revolution, the monks of Cluny were so thoroughly identified with the Ancien Régime that the order was suppressed in France and the monastery at Cluny was partly demolished. The abbey was sold as national property and was used as a stone quarry. It was systematically dismantled until 1823.

Most of the great Abbey of Cluny stands in ruins, but it still suggest the size and glory of the abbey at its zenith, and imagining it as it once was is part of the attraction. The Porte d'Honneur is the best place to start, which is the entrance to the abbey from the village. The pilasters and Corinthian columns of the Clocher de l'Eau-Bénite that is a majestic bell tower, reflects its classical architecture.

A national horse-breeding center on one side of the transept was founded by Napoleon in 1806 and constructed with materials from the destroyed abbey. The other side is an elegant pavilion built as monastic cloisters in the 18th century. Once ago the gardens contained an ancient lime tree which was destroyed by a storm around 1982, named Abelard as the controversial French philosopher who sheltered at the abbey in 1142. The 13th century flour store is on the right, with its fine oak and chestnut roof and collection of exquisite Romanesque capitals from the vanished choir. The Musée Ochier contains masterpieces of Romanesque sculptures. Remains of both the abbey and the village constructed around it are conserved here, as well as part of the Monk’s Library.

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